Skip to main content

Scientists Discover Way to Send Information into Black Holes Without Using Energy

3 comments

How Q-Balls May Have Formed in the Early Universe?

The early Universe was not always the calm and structured place we see today. In its first moments, it went through dramatic changes known as phase transitions, similar to how water freezes into ice. Some of these transitions were violent and sudden, releasing enormous energy and reshaping the contents of the cosmos. New research by Li, Liu, and Guo explores how one such event—a cosmological first-order phase transition—could naturally create unusual, long-lived objects called Q-balls, which may help explain the mystery of dark matter.

What Is a First-Order Phase Transition in the Universe?

A first-order phase transition (FOPT) is a process where the Universe shifts from one state (or vacuum) to another suddenly, rather than smoothly. Think of water boiling: bubbles form, expand, and collide. In the early Universe, similar “bubbles” of a new vacuum formed inside an old one as the Universe cooled.

These transitions are extremely important. Scientists believe they may have:

  • Created the imbalance between matter and antimatter

  • Generated primordial magnetic fields

  • Produced gravitational waves that future detectors may observe

  • Left behind relic objects that still exist today

One exciting possibility is that such transitions could produce stable compact objects—and Q-balls are a leading candidate.

Understanding Q-Balls in Simple Terms

A Q-ball is a type of soliton, meaning a stable, localized lump of energy that does not easily fall apart. What makes Q-balls special is that they carry a conserved quantity called a U(1) charge (similar to electric charge, but more abstract).

Because this charge is conserved, Q-balls are protected from decay. Once they form, they can survive for an extremely long time—possibly longer than the age of the Universe. This makes them interesting candidates for dark matter, the invisible substance that makes up about 85% of all matter.

Q-balls were proposed decades ago, but how they actually form in realistic cosmic conditions has remained unclear—until now.

The Friedberg–Lee–Sirlin Model: A Clean Playground

To study Q-balls, Li, Liu, and Guo used the Friedberg–Lee–Sirlin (FLS) model, a well-known theoretical framework. It includes:

  • A complex scalar field carrying a conserved U(1) charge

  • An additional scalar field that controls the vacuum structure

This model naturally allows Q-balls to exist and is simple enough to study in detail, making it ideal for numerical simulations.

Why Numerical Simulations Are Crucial

Analytical calculations (pen-and-paper math) can explain some features of Q-balls, but they fail when the system is highly chaotic and out of equilibrium—exactly what happens during a first-order phase transition.

To overcome this, the researchers performed lattice simulations, which divide space into a grid and numerically track how fields evolve over time. This method allows them to follow the full, messy dynamics of the phase transition in real time.

Importantly, this is the first time Q-ball formation has been demonstrated numerically during a cosmological FOPT.

How Q-Balls Form: Step by Step

The simulations reveal a clear and fascinating formation process:

  1. False vacuum regions collapse
    As bubbles of true vacuum expand, pockets of the old (false) vacuum get trapped and collapse.

  2. Thermal balls appear
    These collapsing regions first form hot, unstable objects called thermal balls.

  3. Cooling through dissipation
    The thermal balls lose energy through interactions with surrounding fields.

  4. Stabilization into Q-balls
    As they cool, the conserved U(1) charge prevents complete decay, and the objects settle into stable Q-balls.

Some Q-balls even acquire spin, meaning they carry angular momentum—a feature rarely captured in analytic studies.

A Surprising Mass Spectrum

One of the most important findings is that Q-balls formed this way do not all have the same mass.

Earlier analytical estimates predicted a nearly single-mass (monochromatic) population. The simulations show something very different:

  • A large number of low-mass Q-balls

  • A small but important population of very massive Q-balls

  • A mass range spanning more than two orders of magnitude

  • An exponential tail at high masses

Some of the largest Q-balls are several times heavier than previously predicted.

This broad mass spectrum is a major breakthrough and has strong implications for cosmology.

More Q-Balls Than Expected

Another key result is the abundance of Q-balls.

The simulations show that the total number of Q-balls produced is about 50% higher than what analytical models predicted. This happens mainly because:

  • The false vacuum fragments efficiently

  • Charge condenses into many small objects

  • Nonlinear effects boost production

This correction is crucial when evaluating Q-balls as dark matter candidates. With higher abundance, Q-balls can match the observed dark matter density more naturally.

From Q-Balls to Primordial Black Holes

The story may not end with Q-balls.

The simulations suggest that under the right conditions, extremely massive Q-balls could collapse under their own gravity and form primordial black holes (PBHs). This provides a new mechanism linking:

  • First-order phase transitions

  • Q-ball formation

  • Primordial black holes

As a result, scientists can now predict not only Q-ball properties but also the expected PBH mass spectrum from this process.

Why This Research Matters

This work by Li, Liu, and Guo is important for several reasons:

  • It provides the first numerical proof that Q-balls can form during a cosmological FOPT

  • It reveals a realistic, broad mass distribution, not captured by earlier theory

  • It refines predictions for dark matter abundance

  • It connects Q-balls to gravitational waves and primordial black holes

  • It opens new pathways to test physics beyond the Standard Model

As future gravitational-wave observatories and dark-matter searches improve, these results offer clearer targets and more reliable predictions.

Final Thoughts

The early Universe was a dynamic and creative place, capable of producing exotic objects through violent transitions. This study shows that Q-balls—once considered theoretical curiosities—can naturally emerge from cosmic phase transitions, survive for billions of years, and potentially explain dark matter or even seed black holes.

By moving beyond idealized calculations and embracing full numerical simulations, Li, Liu, and Guo have taken a major step toward understanding how the smallest quantum fields may have shaped the largest structures in the Universe.

Reference: Yuan-Jie Li, Jing Liu, Zong-Kuan Guo, "Q-balls from thermal balls during a first-order phase transition: a numerical study", Arxiv, 2026. https://arxiv.org/abs/2601.19150


Technical Terms 

1. Phase Transition (Cosmological Phase Transition)

A phase transition is a change from one state to another.
For example:

  • Water → ice

  • Water → steam

In the early Universe, phase transitions happened when the Universe cooled down as it expanded. During these moments, the basic properties of space and particles changed.

A cosmological phase transition means such a change happened on a Universe-wide scale, affecting everything everywhere.

2. First-Order Phase Transition (FOPT)

A first-order phase transition is a sudden and violent type of change.

  • It happens through bubble formation

  • New regions (true vacuum) appear as bubbles inside old regions (false vacuum)

  • These bubbles grow, collide, and merge

Think of boiling water: bubbles form, expand, and burst.
In the Universe, similar bubbles formed during FOPTs—but with enormous energy.

3. Vacuum (True Vacuum and False Vacuum)

In physics, a vacuum does not mean empty space.

  • It means the lowest-energy state of a field

  • False vacuum:
    A temporary, unstable state with higher energy

  • True vacuum:
    A stable, lower-energy state the Universe prefers

During a phase transition, the Universe moves from the false vacuum to the true vacuum.

4. Bubble Nucleation

Bubble nucleation is the process by which small regions of the true vacuum suddenly appear inside the false vacuum.

  • These bubbles grow rapidly

  • They collide and fill the Universe

  • Their collisions create strong disturbances

This process drives much of the chaos during a first-order phase transition.

5. Scalar Field

A scalar field is something that fills all of space and has a value at every point.

  • Temperature in a room is a simple example

  • In the Universe, scalar fields control particle masses and forces

The Higgs field is the most famous scalar field.
In the article, special scalar fields are responsible for forming Q-balls.

6. Symmetry Breaking

Symmetry breaking happens when a system that was once balanced becomes uneven.

Example:

  • A perfectly round ball on top of a hill can roll in any direction (symmetric)

  • Once it rolls down, symmetry is broken

In the Universe:

  • Symmetry breaking gives particles their masses

  • It occurs during phase transitions

7. Higgs Mechanism

The Higgs mechanism explains how particles get mass.

  • When the Higgs field changed during a phase transition

  • Particles interacting with it became massive

This same idea helps explain how fields in the model allow Q-balls to exist.

8. Q-Ball

A Q-ball is a stable, compact lump of energy made from fields.

Key features:

  • It carries a conserved quantity called charge (Q)

  • It does not easily decay

  • It can survive for a very long time

You can imagine a Q-ball as a self-contained energy bubble held together by its own charge.

9. U(1) Charge (Conserved Charge)

A U(1) charge is a quantity that cannot disappear.

  • Electric charge is a familiar example

  • If total charge is conserved, it must go somewhere

In Q-balls:

  • This conserved charge keeps them stable

  • Breaking a Q-ball would violate charge conservation

10. Soliton

A soliton is a stable wave or object that:

  • Keeps its shape

  • Does not spread out or vanish

Q-balls are a type of soliton because they remain intact even over long times.

11. Thermal Ball

A thermal ball is a hot, unstable object formed right after the phase transition.

  • It is not yet stable

  • It loses energy over time

  • It can cool into a Q-ball

Think of it as a baby Q-ball that hasn’t settled down yet.

12. Dissipation

Dissipation means losing energy.

  • Heat escaping from a hot object is dissipation

  • In the simulations, thermal balls lose energy to surrounding fields

This cooling process allows stable Q-balls to form.

13. Nonequilibrium Dynamics

Nonequilibrium means the system is not calm or balanced.

  • Everything is changing rapidly

  • Energy is flowing unevenly

  • Normal formulas don’t work well

First-order phase transitions are strongly nonequilibrium events.

14. Lattice Simulations

A lattice simulation is a numerical method where space is divided into small cubes (a grid).

  • The computer tracks how fields change at each point

  • It allows scientists to study complex, chaotic processes

  • Very useful when equations are too hard to solve exactly

15. Mass Spectrum

A mass spectrum describes how many objects exist at different masses.

  • Narrow spectrum → almost all objects have the same mass

  • Broad spectrum → many different masses

The study finds a broad mass spectrum for Q-balls.

16. Exponential Tail

An exponential tail means:

  • Heavy objects are rare

  • But they still exist in small numbers

In the Q-ball population:

  • Most are light

  • A few are extremely heavy

17. Angular Momentum (Spin)

Angular momentum is rotation.

  • Earth spinning on its axis has angular momentum

  • Some Q-balls rotate and carry spin

This makes them spinning Q-balls, a feature found in simulations.

18. Dark Matter

Dark matter is invisible matter that:

  • Does not emit light

  • Affects gravity

  • Holds galaxies together

Q-balls are possible dark matter candidates because they are:

  • Stable

  • Massive

  • Weakly interacting

19. Primordial Black Holes (PBHs)

Primordial black holes are black holes formed in the early Universe.

  • Not from stars

  • Formed due to extreme density

Very massive Q-balls may collapse into PBHs under the right conditions.

20. Gravitational Waves

Gravitational waves are ripples in spacetime.

  • Produced by violent cosmic events

  • First-order phase transitions can generate them

  • Future detectors may observe them

Comments

Post a Comment

Popular

Scientists Discover Way to Send Information into Black Holes Without Using Energy

For years, scientists believed that adding even one qubit (a unit of quantum information) to a black hole needed energy. This was based on the idea that a black hole’s entropy must increase with more information, which means it must gain energy. But a new study by Jonah Kudler-Flam and Geoff Penington changes that thinking. They found that quantum information can be teleported into a black hole without adding energy or increasing entropy . This works through a process called black hole decoherence , where “soft” radiation — very low-energy signals — carry information into the black hole. In their method, the qubit enters the black hole while a new pair of entangled particles (like Hawking radiation) is created. This keeps the total information balanced, so there's no violation of the laws of physics. The energy cost only shows up when information is erased from the outside — these are called zerobits . According to Landauer’s principle, erasing information always needs energy. But ...
3 comments
Read more

Black Holes That Never Dies

Black holes are powerful objects in space with gravity so strong that nothing can escape them. In the 1970s, Stephen Hawking showed that black holes can slowly lose energy by giving off tiny particles. This process is called Hawking radiation . Over time, the black hole gets smaller and hotter, and in the end, it disappears completely. But new research by Menezes and his team shows something different. Using a theory called Loop Quantum Gravity (LQG) , they studied black holes with quantum corrections. In their model, the black hole does not vanish completely. Instead, it stops shrinking when it reaches a very small size. This leftover is called a black hole remnant . They also studied something called grey-body factors , which affect how much energy escapes from a black hole. Their findings show that the black hole cools down and stops losing mass once it reaches a minimum mass . This new model removes the idea of a “singularity” at the center of the black hole and gives us a better ...
Post a Comment
Read more

How Planetary Movements Might Explain Sunspot Cycles and Solar Phenomena

Sunspots, dark patches on the Sun's surface, follow a cycle of increasing and decreasing activity every 11 years. For years, scientists have relied on the dynamo model to explain this cycle. According to this model, the Sun's magnetic field is generated by the movement of plasma and the Sun's rotation. However, this model does not fully explain why the sunspot cycle is sometimes unpredictable. Lauri Jetsu, a researcher, has proposed a new approach. Jetsu’s analysis, using a method called the Discrete Chi-square Method (DCM), suggests that planetary movements, especially those of Earth, Jupiter, and Mercury, play a key role in driving the sunspot cycle. His theory focuses on Flux Transfer Events (FTEs), where the magnetic fields of these planets interact with the Sun’s magnetic field. These interactions could create the sunspots and explain other solar phenomena like the Sun’s magnetic polarity reversing every 11 years. The Sun, our closest star, has been a subject of scient...
Post a Comment
Read more